Steamcracking bio-naphtha produced from complex mixtures of natural occurring fats and oils

ABSTRACT

A process for making a bio-naphtha and optionally bio-propane from a complex mixture of natural occurring fats &amp; oils, wherein
         said complex mixture is subjected to a refining treatment for removing the major part of non-triglyceride and non-fatty acid components, thereby obtaining refined fats &amp; oils;   said refined fats &amp; oils are transformed into linear or substantially linear paraffin&#39;s as the bio-naphtha by an hydrodeoxygenation   or from said refined fats &amp; oils are obtained fatty acids that are transformed into linear or substantially linear paraffin&#39;s as the bio-naphtha by hydrodeoxygenation or decarboxylation of the free fatty acids   or from said refined fats &amp; oils are obtained fatty acids soaps that are transformed into linear or substantially linear paraffin&#39;s as the bio-naphtha by decarboxylation of the soaps.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a Divisional of U.S. application Ser. No.13/382,308, filed on Mar. 8, 2012, which claims the benefit ofPCT/EP2010/060028, filed on Jul. 13, 2010, which claims priority from EP09166485.4, filed on Jul. 27, 2009.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the production of bio-naphtha in anintegrated biorefinery from complex mixtures of natural occurring fats &oils. The limited supply and increasing cost of crude oil and the needto reduce emission of fossil based carbon dioxides has prompted thesearch for alternative processes for producing hydrocarbon products suchas bio-naphtha and bio-diesel. The bio-naphtha can be used as feedstockof conventional steamcracking. Made up of organic matter from livingorganisms, biomass is the world's leading renewable energy source.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The industrial chemistry of fats & oils is a mature technology, withdecades of experience and continuous improvements over currentpractices. Natural fats & oils consist mainly of triglycerides and tosome extent of free fatty acids (FFA). Many different types oftriglycerides are produced in nature, either from vegetable as fromanimal origin. Fatty acids in fats & oils are found esterified toglycerol (triacylglycerol). The acyl-group is a long-chain (C₁₂-C₂₂)hydrocarbon with a carboxyl-group at the end that is generallyesterified with glycerol. Fats & oils are characterized by the chemicalcomposition and structure of its fatty acid moiety. The fatty acidmoiety can be saturated or contain one or more double bonds. Bulkproperties of fats & oils are often specified as “saponificationnumber”, “Iodine Value”, “unsaponification number”. The “saponificationnumber”, which is expressed as grams of fat saponified by one mole ofpotassium hydroxide, is an indication of the average molecular weightand hence chain length. The “Iodine value”, which is expressed as theweight percent of iodine consumed by the fat in a reaction with iodinemonochloride, is an index of unsaturation.

Some typical sources of fats & oils and respective composition in fattyacids are given by way of example in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Symbol Cotton- Coconut Corn Palm Peanut Palm Linseed Rice Rape-Olive Saturated Caproic  6:0 0.4 0.2 Caprylic  8:0 7.3 3.3 Capric 10:06.6 3.5 Lauric 12:0 47.8 47.8 0.2 Myristic 14:0 0.9 18.1 16.3 0.1 1.10.4 0.02 Palmitic 16:0 24.7 8.9 10.9 8.5 11.6 44.1 6.0 19.8 3.9 10.5Margaric 17:0 0.05 Stearic 18:0 2.3 2.7 1.8 2.4 3.1 4.4 2.5 1.9 1.9 2.6Arachidic 20:0 0.1 0.1 1.5 0.2 0.5 0.9 0.6 0.4 Behenic 22:0 3.0 0.3 0.20.2 Lignoceric 24:0 1.0 0.2 0.1 TOTAL 28.0 91.9 22.7 82.0 20.3 50 9.023.3 6.8 13.87 Unsaturated Myristoleic 14:1 w-5 Palmitoleic 16:1 w-7 0.70.5 0.1 0.2 0.6 Heptadecenoic 17:1 w-15 0.09 Oleic 18:1 w-9 17.6 6.424.2 15.4 38.0 37.5 19.0 42.3 64.1 76.9 Linoleic 18:2 w-6 53.3 1.6 58.02.4 41.0 10 24.1 31.9 18.7 7.5 Linolenic 18:3 w-3 0.3 0.7 47.4 1.2 9.20.6 Gadolenic 20:1 w-9 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.3 TOTAL 72.0 8.1 77.3 18.0 79.750 91 76.7 93.2 86.13 Polyunsaturated Ricinoleic 18 Rosin acids — % FFA0.5-0.6 1.0-3.5 1.7 0.1 0.8 2-14 2 5-15 0.5-3.8 0.5-3.3 Soy- Sun- LinolaLard Butterfat Tallow Tall Castor Jatropha Saturated Caproic 2 Caprylic2 Capric 3 Lauric 0.5 0.5 3.5 Myristic 0.1 0.2 1.5 11 3 Palmitic 11.06.8 5.6 26 26 26 2 1.0 14.6 Margaric 0.5 0.5 Stearic 4.0 4.7 4.0 13.5 1122.5 1 1.0 7.4 Arachidic 0.3 0.4 2 0.5 Behenic 0.1 Lignoceric TOTAL 15.512.6 9.6 42.0 60.5 52.0 3.5 2.0 22.0 Unsaturated Myristoleic 0.5Palmitoleic 0.1 0.1 4 2 2.5 0.8 Heptadecenoic 0.5 3 0.5 Oleic 23.4 18.615.9 43 26 43 16 3.0 47.5 Linoleic 53.2 68.2 71.8 9 2.5 1.5 20 4.2 28.7Linolenic 7.8 0.5 2.0 0.5 4 0.3 1.0 Gadolenic 1 0.5 TOTAL 84.5 87.4 90.458.0 37.5 48.0 54.5 7.5 78.0 Polyunsaturated 2 4 Ricinoleic 89.5 Rosinacids 40 % FFA 0.3-1.6 0.1-1.5 0.3 0.5 5-20

There are other potential feedstock available at this time, namely trapand sewage grease and other very high free fatty acid greases who's FFAcan exceed 50%.

The main sources of fats & oils are palm and palm kernels, soybeans,rapeseed, sunflower, coconut, corn, animal fats, milk fats.

Potentially new sources of triglycerides will become available in thenear future, namely those extracted from Jatropha and those produced bymicroalgues. These microalgues can accumulate more then 30 wt % oflipids on dry basis and they can either be cultivated in open basin,using atmospheric CO₂ or in closed photobioreactors. In the latter case,the required CO₂ can originate from the use of fossil hydrocarbons thatare captured and injected into the photobioreactor. Main sources offossil CO₂ are power stations, boilers used in refineries andsteamcrackers furnaces used to bring hydrocarbon streams at hightemperature or to supply heat of reactions in hydrocarbontransformations in refineries and steamcrackers. In particularsteamcracking furnaces produce a lot of CO₂. In order to enhance the CO₂concentration in flue gases of these furnaces, techniques likeoxycombustion, chemical looping or absorption of CO₂ can be employed. Inoxycombustion, oxygen is extracted from air and this pure oxygen is usedto burn hydrocarbon fuels as to obtain a stream only containing waterand CO₂, allowing concentrating easily the CO₂ for storage orre-utilisation. In chemical looping, a solid material acts asoxygen-transfer agent from a re-oxidation zone where the reduced solidis re-oxidised with air into oxidised solid to a combustion zone, wherethe hydrocarbon fuel is burned with the oxidised solid and hence theeffluent resulting from the combustion zone only contains water and CO₂.Absorption of CO₂ can be done with the help of a lean solvent that has ahigh preferential to absorb CO₂ under pressure and typically at lowtemperature and will release the CO₂ when depressurized and/or heated.Rectisol® and Selexol® are commercial available technologies to removeand concentrate CO₂. Other sources of CO₂ are the byproduct fromcarbohydrates fermentation into ethanol or other alcohols and theremoval of excess CO₂ from synthesis gas made from biomass or coalgasification.

US 2007/0175795 reports the contacting of a hydrocarbon and atriglyceride to form a mixture and contacting the mixture with ahydrotreating catalyst in a fixed bed reactor under conditionssufficient to produce a reaction product containing diesel boiling rangehydrocarbons. The example demonstrates that the hydrotreatment of suchmixture increases the cloud point and pour point of the resultinghydrocarbon mixture.

US 2004/0230085 reports a process for producing a hydrocarbon componentof biological origin, characterized in that the process comprises atleast two steps, the first one of which is a hydrodeoxygenation step andthe second one is an isomerisation step. The resulting products have lowsolidification points and high cetane number and can be used as dieselor as solvent.

US 2007/0135669 reports the manufacture of branched saturatedhydrocarbons, characterized in that a feedstock comprising unsaturatedfatty acids or fatty acids esters with C1-C5 alcohols, or mixturethereof, is subjected to a skeletal isomerisation step followed by adeoxygenation step. The results demonstrate that very good cloud pointscan be obtained.

US 2007/0039240 reports on a process for cracking tallow into dieselfuel comprising: thermally cracking the tallow in a cracking vessel at atemperature of 260-371° C., at ambient pressure and in the absence of acatalyst to yield in part cracked hydrocarbons.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,554,397 reports on a process for manufacturing olefins,comprising contacting a carboxylic acid or a carboxylic ester with acatalyst at a temperature of 200-400° C., wherein the catalystsimultaneously contains nickel and at least one metal from the groupconsisting of tin, germanium and lead.

It has been discovered a process to make bio-naphtha in an integratedbiorefinery from all kinds of natural triglycerides or fatty acids. Insaid process crude fats & oils are refined, either physically orchemically, to remove substantially all non-triglyceride components andnon-free fatty acids.

The use of a biofeed is a possible solution in the search of alternativeraw material for the naphthacracker. Nevertheless, using this type offeed can lead to corrosion problems and excessive fouling because ofoxygenates forming from the oxygen atoms in the biofeed. Also existingsteamcrackers are not designed to remove high amounts of carbonoxidesthat would result from the steamcracking of these biofeedstock.According to the present invention, such a problem can be solved byhydrodeoxygenating/decarboxylating (or decarbonylating) this biofeedbefore its injection into the steam cracker. Thanks to thishydrodeoxygenation/decarboxylation (or decarbonylation), the negativeeffect due to the production of CO and CO₂ and traces of low molecularweight oxygenates (aldehydes and acids) in the steam cracker is reduced.

Another advantage is of course the production of bio-monomers in thesteam cracker.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The subject-matter of the present invention is, in a first embodiment, aprocess for making a bio-naphtha from a complex mixture of naturaloccurring fats & oils, wherein said complex mixture is subjected to arefining treatment for removing the major part of the non-triglycerideand non-fatty acid components, thereby obtaining refined oils;

-   -   said refined fats & oils are transformed into linear or        substantially linear paraffin's as the bio-naphtha by an        hydrodeoxygenation    -   or from said refined fats & oils are obtained fatty acids that        are transformed into linear or substantially linear paraffin's        as the bio-naphtha by hydrodeoxygenation or decarboxylation of        the fatty acids    -   or from said refined fats & oils are obtained fatty acids soaps        that are transformed into linear or substantially linear        paraffin's as the bio-naphtha by decarboxylation of the soaps.

In an embodiment 2 the invention is according to embodiment 1, whereinsaid complex mixture of natural occurring fats & oils is selected amongvegetable oils and animal fats, preferentially inedible oils, highlysaturated oils, waste food oils, by-products of the refining ofvegetable oils, and mixtures thereof.

In an embodiment 3 the invention is according to embodiment 1 or 2,wherein said fatty acids are obtained by physical refining, including asteam distillation or vacuum distillation of fats & oils

-   -   or said fatty acids are obtained by hydrolysis of triglycerides        of the fats & oils    -   or said fatty acids are obtained by acidulation of soaps.

In an embodiment 4 the invention is according to embodiment 1 or 2,wherein said fatty acid soaps are obtained by saponification of fats &oils

-   -   or by the chemical refining, including neutralisation of free        fatty acids, present in the fats & oils    -   or neutralisation of fatty acids, obtained from hydrolysis of        the fats & oils

In an embodiment 5 the invention is according to anyone of embodiments 1to 3, wherein said refined fats & oils are transformed into linear orsubstantially linear paraffins as bio-naphtha together with bio-propaneby hydrodeoxygenation in the presence of hydrogen and of at least onecatalyst that can be selected among Ni, Mo, Co or mixtures like NiW,NiMo, CoMo, NiCoW, NiCoMo, NiMoW and CoMoW oxides or sulphides ascatalytic phase, preferably supported on high surface area carbon,alumina, silica, titania or zirconia.

In an embodiment 6 the invention is according to embodiment 5, whereinthe hydrodeoxygenation is carried out at a temperature from 200 to 500°C., under a pressure from 1 MPa to 10 MPa (10 to 100 bars) and with ahydrogen to feed ratio from 100 to 2000 Nl/l.

In an embodiment 7 the invention is according to anyone of Embodiments 1to 4, wherein said refined oils are transformed into linear orsubstantially linear paraffins as bio-naphtha by hydrolysis of the fats& oils into glycerol and fatty acids, removal of the glycerol or byphysical refining, including a steam distillation or vacuum distillationof fats & oils or obtained by acidulation of soaps andhydrodeoxygenation or decarboxylation of the fatty acids, saidhydrodeoxygenation or decarboxylation being conducted in the presence ofhydrogen and of at least one catalyst that can be selected among Ni, Mo,Co or mixtures like NiW, NiMo, CoMo, NiCoW, NiCoMo, NiMoW and CoMoWoxides or sulphides as catalytic phase, preferably supported on highsurface area carbon, alumina, silica, titania or zirconia or group 10(Ni, Pt and Pd) and group 11 (Cu and Ag) metals or alloy mixturessupported on high surface area carbon, magnesia, zinc-oxide, spinels(Mg₂Al₂O₄, ZnAl₂O₄), perovskites (BaTiO₃, ZnTiO₃), calciumsilicates(like xonotlite), alumina, silica or silica-alumina's or mixtures of thelatter.

In an embodiment 8 the invention is according to anyone of embodiments 1to 4, wherein said refined oils are transformed into linear orsubstantially linear paraffin's as bio-naphtha by hydrolysis of the fats& oils into glycerol and fatty acids, removal of the glycerol or byphysical refining, including a steam distillation or vacuum distillationof fats & oils or obtained by acidulation of soaps and decarboxylationof the fatty acids is carried out on basic oxides, like alkaline oxides,alkaline earth oxides, lanthanide oxides, zinc-oxide, spinels (Mg₂Al₂O₄,ZnAl₂O₄), perovskites (BaTiO₃, ZnTiO₃), calciumsilicates (likexonotlite), either as bulk material or dispersed on neutral or basiccarriers, on basic zeolites (like alkali or alkaline earth lowsilica/alumina zeolites obtained by exchange or impregnation).

In an embodiment 9 the invention is according to embodiments 7 and 8,wherein the hydrodeoxygenation is carried out at a temperature from 200to 500° C., under a pressure from 1 MPa to 10 MPa (10 to 100 bars) andwith a hydrogen to feedstock ratio from 100 to 2000 Nl/l. or wherein thedecarboxylation is carried out at a temperature from 100 to 550° C.,under a pressure from 0.1 MPa to 10 MPa (1 to 100 bars) and with ahydrogen to feedstock ratio from 0 to 2000 Nl/l.

In an embodiment 10 the invention is according to embodiment 4, whereinthe decarboxylation of the soaps is carried out at from 100 to 550° C.under pressure from 0.1 Mpa to 10 Mpa and in presence of water.

In an embodiment 11 the invention is according to embodiments 4 and 10,wherein the decarboxylation of the soaps is carried out with a water tofeedstock ratio of at least 1 mole water per mole of soap.

In an embodiment 12 the invention is the Use of the bio-naphtha asobtained in the process of any one of embodiments 1 to 11, as a directfeedstock of a steamcracker, said bio-naphtha being used as such, ortogether with the bio-propane when produced by the process of embodiment5, or as blended with at least a conventional feedstock selected amongLPG, naphtha and gasoil, in order to obtain cracked products includingbio-ethylene, bio-propylene, bio-butadiene, bio-isoprene,bio-cyclopentadiene and bio-piperylenes, bio-benzene, bio-toluene,bio-xylene and bio-gasoline,

-   -   wherein in the steamcracking process the hydrocarbon feedstock        is mixed with steam in a ratio of 0.3 to 0.45 kg steam per kg        hydrocarbon feedstock.

In an embodiment 13 the invention is the process of embodiment 12wherein the hydrocarbon feedstock is mixed with steam in a ratio of 0.3to 0.4 kg steam per kg hydrocarbon feedstock.

In an embodiment 14 the invention is a process for steam cracking afeedstock as defined in embodiment 12 or 13, wherein the mixture isheated up to a temperature of 750-950° C. at a residence time of 0.05 to0.5 seconds.

In an embodiment 15 the invention is a process for steam cracking afeedstock as defined in any one of embodiments 12 to 14, wherein themixture is heated up to a temperature of 750-950° C. at a residence timeof 0.05 to 0.15 seconds.

In an embodiment 16 the invention is the Use of the bio-naphtha asobtained in the process of any one of embodiments 1 to 11 forsteamcracking such as to obtain a ethylene to methane weight ratio,resulting from the cracking of bio-naphtha, of at least 3.

By “bio-naphtha” we mean naphtha produced from renewable sources byhydrotreatment of these renewable sources. It is a hydrocarboncomposition, consisting of mainly paraffin's and that can be used forthe steamcracking to produce light olefins, dienes and aromatics. Themolecular weight of this bio-naphtha ranges from hydrocarbons having 8to 24 carbons, preferably from 10 to 18 carbons.

By “substantially linear paraffins”, we mean a composition of paraffin'sconsisting of at least 90% by weight of linear paraffin's.

Said complex mixture of natural occurring fats & oils can be selectedamong vegetable oils and animal fats, preferentially inedible highlysaturated oils, waste food oils, by-products of the refining ofvegetable oils, and mixtures thereof. Specific examples of these fats &oils have been previously mentioned in the present specification.

Said refined oils, eventually still containing some free fatty acids canbe transformed into linear or substantially linear paraffin's asbio-naphtha together with bio-propane by hydrodeoxygenation in thepresence of hydrogen and of at least one hydrodeoxygenation catalyst.The hydrodeoxygenation catalyst can be selected among Ni, Mo, Co ormixtures like NiW, NiMo, CoMo, NiCoW, NiCoMo, NiMoW and CoMoW oxides orsulphides as catalytic active phase, preferably supported on highsurface area carbon, alumina, silica, titania or zirconia or group 10(Ni, Pt or Pd) or group 11 (Cu or Ag) metals or alloy mixtures supportedon high surface area carbon, magnesia, zinc-oxide, spinels (Mg₂Al₂O₄,ZnAl₂O₄), perovskites (BaTiO₃, ZnTiO₃), calciumsilicates (likexonotlite), alumina, silica or mixtures of the latter. It is preferredthat the support for the catalytic active phase exhibit low acidity,preferable neutral or basic in order to avoid hydro-isomerisationreactions that would result in branched paraffin's and cracking. Thehydrodeoxygenation of the fats & oils can be carried out at atemperature from 200 to 500° C., preferably from 280 to 400° C., under apressure from 1 MPa to 10 MPa (10 to 100 bars), for example of 6 MPa,and with a hydrogen to refined oils ratio from 100 to 2000, butpreferably from 350 to 1500 for example of 600 Nl H2/1 oil.

Said refined oils can also be transformed into linear or substantiallylinear paraffin's as bio-naphtha by producing fatty acids by (i)hydrolysis of the fats & oils into glycerol and fatty acids, removal ofthe glycerol, by (ii) physical refining (steam/vacuum distillation) offats & oils or by acidulation of fatty acid soaps and subsequentlyhydrodeoxygenation or decarboxylation (or decarbonylation) of the fattyacids, said hydrodeoxygenation being conducted in the presence ofhydrogen and of at least one hydrodeoxygenation or decarboxylationcatalyst. The hydrodeoxygenation or decarboxylation catalyst can beselected among Ni, Mo, Co or mixtures like NiW, NiMo, CoMo, NiCoW,NiCoMo, NiMoW and CoMoW oxides or sulphides as catalytic phase,preferably supported on high surface area carbon, alumina, silica,titania or zirconia or group 10 (Ni, Pt or Pd) or group 11 (Cu or Ag)metals or alloy mixtures supported on high surface area carbon,magnesia, zinc-oxide, spinels (Mg₂Al₂O₄, ZnAl₂O₄), perovskites (BaTiO₃,ZnTiO₃), calciumsilicates (like xonotlite), alumina, silica orsilica-alumina's or mixtures of the latter. It is preferred that thesupport for the catalytic active phase exhibit low acidity, preferableneutral or basic in order to avoid hydro-isomerisation reactions thatwould result in branched paraffin's and cracking. The hydrolysis(splitting) can be carried out in presence of steam thermally at 15 to75 bars and at 50-300° C. or catalytically, for example with basiccatalysts, like MgO, CaO, ZnO, spinels (Mg2Al2O4, ZnAl2O4), perovskites(BaTiO3, ZnTiO3), calciumsilicates (like xonotlite) or basic alumina orwith acidic catalysts, like sulphuric acid. Detailed information aboutfat & oil splitting has been published by Sonntag (Sonntag, N., J. Am.Oil. Chem. Soc., 56, p. 729, 1979 and Bailey's Industrial Oil and FatProducts, ed. F. Shahidi, 2005, John Wiley & Sons). In the Colgate-Emeryprocess, heated liquid lipid is introduced at the bottom of a verticaltubular reactor. Heated water enters at the top. As the fats & oilsrises through the descending water under pressure, a continuous zone ofhigh water solubility in oil establishes, wherein hydrolysis occurs.Effluent from the column is recovered, fatty acids from one outlet andan aqueous glycerol stream from the other. The presence of small amountsof mineral acids, such as sulfuric acid or sulfonic acids or certainmetal oxides, such as zinc or magnesium oxide, accelerates the splittingreaction. These metal oxides are true catalysts and they assist also inthe formation of emulsions.

The hydrodeoxygenation of the fatty acids can be carried out at atemperature from 200 to 500° C., preferably from 280 to 400° C., under apressure from 1 MPa to 10 MPa (10 to 100 bars), for example of 6 MPa,and with a hydrogen to refined oils ratio from 100 to 2000 Nl/l, forexample of 600 Nl H2/1 oil. The decarboxylation of the fatty acids canbe carried out at 100 to 550° C. in absence or presence of hydrogen atpressures ranging from 0.01 up to 10 MPa.

Said refined oils can also be transformed into linear or substantiallylinear paraffin's as bio-naphtha by thermal decarboxylation of fattyacid soaps. These soaps are obtained during chemical refining byneutralisation to convert free fatty acids into soaps, by neutralisationof fatty acids obtained by hydrolysis of fats & oils or by completesaponification of triglycerides into glycerol and soap. A soap is ametal salt of the corresponding fatty acid.

The present invention also relates to the use of the bio-naphtha asobtained in the above mentioned process, as a direct feedstock of asteamcracker, said bio-naphtha being used as such, or together with thebio-propane when produced by the above-mentioned process, or as blendedwith at least a conventional feedstock selected among LPG, naphtha andgasoil, in order to obtain cracked products including bio-ethylene,bio-propylene, bio-butadiene, bio-isoprene, bio-(di)cyclopentadiene,bio-piperylenes, bio-benzene, bio-toluene, bio-xylene and bio-gasoline.

Moreover, the present invention relates to a process for steam crackinga feedstock as defined above, wherein said feedstock is mixed withsteam, having a steam/feedstock ratio of at least 0.2 kg per kg offeedstock. This mixture is sent through the heated coils, having a coiloutlet temperature of at least 700° C. and a coil outlet pressure of atleast 1.2 bara.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates a refining pretreatment in which crude oils areprocessed through various routes, physical or chemical, to RefinedBleached Deodorized (RBD) oils.

FIG. 2 illustrates physical refinement of fats and oils by vacuumdistillation or steam distillation to recover mixed fatty acids asoverhead product and the triglycerides as bottom product.

FIG. 3 illustrates another embodiment of physical refinement of fats andoils by vacuum distillation or steam distillation to recover mixed fattyacids as overhead product and triglycerides as bottom product.

FIG. 4 illustrates saponification of fats and oils to recover soap andglycerol.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

All crude fats & oils obtained after rendering, crushing or solventextraction inevitably contain variable amounts of non-triglyceridecomponents such as free fatty acids, mono and diglycerides,phosphatides, sterols, tocopherols, tocotrienols hydrocarbons, pigments(gossypol, chlorophyll), vitamins (carotenoids), sterols glucosides,glycolipids, protein fragments, traces of pesticides and traces metals,as well as resinous and mucilaginous materials. The quantities of thenon-glycerides vary with the oil source, extraction process, season andgeographical source. Removal of the non-triglyceride components, whichinterfere with further processing and cause the oil to darken, foam,smoke, precipitate and develop off-flavours, is the objective of therefining process.

Refining Pretreatment Choice of the Refining Method

FIG. 1 illustrates the refining pretreatment in which crude oils areprocessed through various routes, physical or chemical, to RefinedBleached Deodorized (RBD) oils. Physical refining and alkali/chemicalrefining differ principally in the way free fatty acids are removed.

In chemical refining, FFA, most of the phosphatides, and otherimpurities are removed during neutralization with an alkaline solution,usually NaOH.

In physical refining, the FFA is removed by distillation duringdeodorization and the phosphatides and other impurities must be removedprior to steam distillation of fats & oils

Currently, the refining method of choice is determined by thecharacteristics of the individual crude fats & oils:

(1) fats and oils that are normally physically refined;

(2) fats and oils that can be physically or chemically refined; and

(3) fats and oils that can only be chemically refined.

Table 2 below summarizes advantages and disadvantages of each treatment:

TABLE 2 Physical refining Refining type Advantages DisadvantagesChemical Functional process Production of by- refining products Notrestricted by the Expensive process oil type Successful reduction Highloss of oil of FFA Physical Cheaper Not suitable for all types refiningof oils Less by-products Requires high temperature and vacuum Lessenergy Can form undesired side consumed reaction products

The physical refining can remove the FFA, as well as the unsaponifiablesand other impurities by steam stripping, thus eliminating the productionof soapstock and keeping neutral oil loss to a minimum. However,degumming pretreatments of the crude fats & oils are still required toremove those impurities that darken or otherwise cause a poor-qualityproduct when heated to the temperature required for steam distillation.A degumming process is crucial for physical refining but optional forchemical refining. It consists of the treatment of crude oils, withwater, salt solutions, enzymes, caustic soda, or diluted acids such asphosphoric, citric or maleic to remove phosphatides, waxes, pro-oxidantsand other impurities. The degumming processes convert the phosphatidesto hydrated gums, which are insoluble in oil and readily separated as asludge by settling, filtering or centrifugal action. After degumming,phosphorous must be less than 30 ppm. So that bleaching or dry degummingcan further reduce this level to less than 5 ppm and remove all tracesof iron and copper. Acid or enzymatic degumming processes are normallyemployed to achieve these results.

The various industrial degumming processes have different aims. Fats &oils to be degummed vary widely in gum content and gum properties andfinally, the means of gum disposal available, what equipment is neededand/or available, and the cost of auxiliaries also influence the choiceof the most appropriated degumming process. The lipid handbook (Thelipid handbook, edited by Frank D. Gunstone, John L. Harwood, Albert J.Dijkstra. 3rd ed., chapter 3.4) deals with these aspects in details.Next is briefly described the four major degumming process applied onthe market.

The main purposes of the water degumming process are to produce oil thatdoes not deposit a residue during transportation and storage, and tocontrol the phosphorus content of crude oils just below 200 ppm. Thisprocess involves the addition of live steam to raw oil for a shortperiod. The proper amount of water is normally about 75% of thephosphatides content of the oil. Too little water produces dark viscousgums and hazy oil, while too much water causes excess oil losses throughhydrolysis. Water-degummed oil still contains phosphatides (between 80and 200 ppm); only hydratable phosphatides are removed with thisprocess. The nonhydratable phosphatides, which are calcium and magnesiumsalts of phosphatic acid and phosphatidyl ethanolamine, remain in theoil after water degumming.

Acid degumming process leads to a lower residual phosphorus content thanwater degumming and is therefore a good alternative if dry degumming andphysical refining are to be the next refining steps. The acid degummingprocess might be considered as a variant of the water degumming processin that it uses a combination of water and acid. The non-hydratablephosphatides can be conditioned into hydratable forms with aciddegumming. Phosphoric and citric acids are used because they are foodgrade, sufficiently strong and they bind divalent metal ions. Severalacid degumming processes have been developed to attain a phosphorusvalue lower than 5 ppm that is required for good quality physicallyrefined oils.

An acid refining differs from the acid degumming by the neutralisationof the liberated phosphatides (the action of the degumming acid does notlead to full hydration of the phosphatides) to make them hydratable bythe addition of a base.

In dry degumming process, the oil is treated with an acid (principle isthat strong acids displace weaker acids from their salts) to decomposethe metal ion/phosphatides complex and is then mixed with bleachingearth. The earth containing the degumming acid, phosphatides, pigmentsand other impurities is then removed by filtration. Seed oils that havebeen water or acid-degummed may also be dry degummed to ensure a lowphosphorus oil to steam distillation. An increase in FFA of less than0.2% should be expected but the final phosphorus content must be reducedto less than 5 ppm. This process constitutes the main treatment for palmoil, lauric oils, canola oil and low phosphatides animal fats, such astallow or lard. The dry degumming process allows crude oil to be fullyrefined in only two steps: dry degumming and physical refining.

In enzymatic degumming process, Phospholipase Al, the lastest developeddegumming enzyme, changes the phospholipids into lysophospholipids andfree fatty acids. This process has three important steps:

(1) adjustment of the pH with a buffer;

(2) enzymatic reaction in the holding tanks; and

(3) separation of the sludge from the oil.

Oil to be degummed enzymatically by this way can be crude or waterdegummed.

The lipid handbook (The lipid handbook, edited by Frank D. Gunstone,John L. Harwood, Albert J. Dijkstra. 3rd ed.) describes many variantsand details of the degumming processes.

The purpose of bleaching is to provide a decoloured oil but also topurify it in preparation for further processing. All fully refined oilshave been subjected to one or the other bleaching process. Refined oilcontains traces of a number of undesirable impurities either in solutionor as colloidal suspensions. The bleaching process does more than justincreasing the transmission of light through the oil and is often called“adsorptive cleaning”. The bleaching process is often the firstfiltration encountered by the oil, so it ensures the removal of soaps,residual phosphatides, trace metals, and some oxidation products, and itcatalyses the decomposition of carotene and the adsorbent also catalysesthe decomposition of peroxides. These non-pigment materials, such assoap, gums, and pro-oxidants metals, which hinder filtration, poisonhydrogenation catalyst, darken the oils, and affect finished oilflavour. Another function is the removal of the peroxides and secondaryoxidation products. The key parameters for the bleaching process areprocedure, adsorbent type and dosage, temperature, time, moisture andfiltration, as shown in the Lipid Handbook (The lipid handbook, editedby Frank D. Gunstone, John L. Harwood, Albert J. Dijkstra. 3rd ed.,chapter 3.7). The three most common types of contact bleaching methodsused for edible fats and oils are batch atmospheric, batch vacuum andcontinuous vacuum. Chemical agents have been used or proposed for usebut practically all edible oil decolouration and purification isaccomplished with adsorptive clays, synthetic amorphous silica andactivated carbons.

Before the last major processing step, bleached oil can be hydrogenated,for two reasons. One reason is to change naturally occurring fats & oilsinto physical forms with the consistency and handling characteristicsrequired for functionality. The second reason for hydrogenation is toincrease the oxidation and thermal stability. Instead of purification inother described processes, this step consists in fats & oils molecularmodification.

Hydrogen is added directly to react with unsaturated oil in the presenceof catalysts, mostly nickel. This process greatly influences the desiredstability and properties of many edible oil products. The hydrogenationprocess is easily controlled and can be stopped at any point. A gradualincrease in the melting point of fats and oils is one of the advantages.If the double bonds are eliminated entirely with hydrogenation, theproduct is a hard brittle solid at room temperature. Shortening andmargarine are typical examples. A wide range of fats and oils productscan be produced with the hydrogenation process depending upon theconditions used, the starting oils, and the degree of saturation orisomerization.

To obtain good-quality fats and oils with physical refining, it isadvantageous to have a phosphorous content lower than 5 ppm before steamstripping.

The degummed-bleached oils are vacuum stripped. This process encompassesthe deodorization process, applied after the alkali routes, as well asphysical refining. Deodorization, the last major processing step duringwhich the FFA can be removed, is a vacuum-steam distillation process(1-2 mbar of residual pressure) at elevated temperature (180-240° C.)during which FFAs and minute levels of odoriferous materials, mostlyarising from oxidation, are removed to obtain a bland and odourless oil.In order to volatilise the undesired high-boiling components, a deepvacuum and dilution with steam is applied so that the boilingtemperature can be minimised. The deodorization utilizes the differencesin volatility between off-flavour and off-odor substances and thetriglycerides.

The odoriferous substances, FFAs, aldehydes, ketones, peroxides,alcohols, and others organic compounds are concentrated in a deodorizerdistillate. Efficient removal of these substances depends upon theirvapour pressure, for a given constituent is a function of thetemperature and increases with the temperature.

As usually the last stage in the refining process, deodorization has animportant effect an overall refined oil quality and distillatecomposition. Its main purposes are giving a bland taste and smell, lowFFA content, high oxidative stability and light and stable colour.Because of the need of a rather high temperature to remove the undesiredcomponents, unwanted side effects are, isomerisation of double bond,polymerisation, intra-esterification and degradation of vitamins andanti-oxidants. New dry condensing (steam is condensed into ice) vacuumsystems capable of reaching a very low operating pressure in thedeodorizer were introduced (close to 0.1 kPa). This progress allows areduction of the deodorization temperature without affecting thestripping efficiency in a negative way. In order to minimise the timethat the oil is at high temperature, deodorizers can operate at dualtemperatures to reach the best compromise between required residencetime for deodorizing (at moderate temperature) and heat bleaching andfinal stripping at high temperature.

Deodorizer distillate is the material collected from the steamdistillation of edible oils. The distillate from physically refined oilsconsists mainly of FFAs with low levels of unsaponifiable components.The concentration of FFA can be improved from typical 80% up to 98% byapplying double condensing system that produces an enriched FFA cut. Thedistillate can be used as a source of industrial fatty acids or mixedwith the fuel oil used to fire the steam boilers.

A physical refining will be preferred due to higher remaining FFAcontent in refined oils before steam stripping.

Chemical Refining

As applied to crude oils, it includes degumming (removal ofphospholipids), neutralization (removal of free fatty acids), bleaching(decolourisation) and deodorization (FIG. 1).

Degumming involves for instance the addition of water to hydrate anygums present, followed by centrifugal separation. Non-hydratable gumsare removed by converting them first to a hydratable form usingphosphoric or citric acid, followed by the addition of water andcentrifugation. Acid degumming can also be used (see the descriptionabove).

The following step is neutralisation in which an aqueous alkali,typically caustic soda or sodium carbonate, is sprayed into the oilwhich has been preheated to around 75-95° C. The alkali reacts with freefatty acids in the oil to form soaps, which are separated by settling orcentrifugation. Selection of the aqueous alkali strength, mixing time,mixing energy, temperature, and the quantity of excess caustic all havean important impact on making the chemical refining process operateefficiently and effectively. A drying step may be incorporated afterneutralisation to ensure the complete removal of the added water. Thesoap can be used as such or can be hydrolysed (acidulation) withsulphuric acid into the corresponding FFA.

The neutralised oil is bleached to remove colouring matter (such ascarotenoids) and other minor constituents, such as oxidative degradationproducts or traces of metals. Bleaching uses activated fuller's earthwith treatments typically in the 90-130° C. range for 10-60 minutes. Theearth is sucked into the oil under vacuum and is removed by filtration.

The bleached oil is steam distilled at low pressure to remove volatileimpurities including undesirable odours and flavours. This process,known as deodorisation, takes place in the temperature range of 180-270°C. and may last 15 minutes to five hours depending upon the nature ofthe oil, the quantity, and the type of equipment used.

Obtention of Bio-Naphtha from Refined Oils

Three options exist to convert fats & oils into LPG and naphtha-likehydrocarbons that can be used for the steamcracking in order to producelight olefins, dienes and aromatics.

These are summarised in table 3.

TABLE 3 Catalyst/intermediate Feedstock Process compounds Triglycerides,Catalytic Supported Ni, Mo, Co, eventually contain- Hydro- NiW, NiMo,CoMo, NiCoW, ing fatty acids deoxygenation NiCoMo, NiMoW and CoMoW Fattyacids Catalytic oxides or sulphides Decarboxylation Supported group 10(Ni, Pt, Pd) or group 11 (Cu, Ag) metals or alloys Basic oxides or mixedbasic oxides Fatty acids Soaps Thermal Soaps of alkali, alkalineDecarboxylation earth, lanthanides or group 12 or 13

The first option consists in hydrodeoxygenation, which removes theoxygen atoms from the fats & oils. This can be done on the triglyceridesas such, the triglycerides containing FFA's or on only FFA's.Hydrodeoxygenation of fats & oils has been reported in 1989 (W. H. Craigand D. W. Soveran, “Production of hydrocarbons with relatively highcetane rating”, U.S. Pat. No. 4,992,605 and Gusmao J, Brodzki D,Djéga-Mariadassou G, Frety R., “Utilization of vegetable oils as analternative source for diesel-type fuel: Hydrocracking on reducedNi/SiO2 and sulphided Ni—Mo/γ-Al2O3”, Cat. Today 1989 (5) 533) in whichconventional CoMo or NiMo sulphided catalysts are used. These catalystsare well known in hydrodesulphurization and are known to catalyze alsohydrodeoxygenation (E. Furimsky, Applied Catalysis A, General, 199,pages 147-190, 2000).

Hydrodeoxygenation of fats & oils is preferentially done in continuousfixed bed reactors, continuous stirred tank reactors or slurry typereactors containing solid catalyst that can be selected among Ni, Mo, Coor mixtures like NiW, NiMo, CoMo, NiCoW, NiCoMo, NiMoW and CoMoW oxidesor sulphides as catalytic phase, preferably supported on high surfacearea carbon, alumina, silica, titania or zirconia. It is preferred thatthe support for the catalytic active phase exhibit low acidity,preferable neutral or basic in order to avoid hydro-isomerisationreactions that would result in branched paraffin's and cracking atelevated temperature and pressure in the presence of hydrogen.Temperature ranges from 200 to 500° C., pressure from 1 MPa to 10 MPa(10 to 100 bars) and hydrogen to oil feed ratio from 100 to 2000 Nm³/m³of liquid. For optimum performance and stable continuous operation, itis preferred that the active metal component of the catalyst is in theform of sulfides. Thereto, it is preferred that traces amounts ofdecomposable sulphur compounds are present or added on purpose to thefeedstock in order to keep the metal sulphide in its sulphide state. Byway of example, these sulphur compounds can be H₂S, COS, CS₂, mercaptans(e.g. methylsulfide), thio-ethers (e.g. DiMethylSulfide), disulfides(e.g. DiMethyldiSulfide), thiophenic and tetrahydrothiophenic compounds.

Under hydrodeoxygenation conditions several reactions occur. The easiestis the hydrogenation of the double bonds in the alkyl-chain. The moredifficult reaction is the removal of oxygen atoms from the C—O bonds.Both the carboxyl-group of the fatty acid as the hydroxyl-group of theglycerol-moiety are hydrodeoxygenated. This results in the production oflinear paraffin, resulting from the fatty acid and in propane, resultingfrom glycerol. Depending on the conditions (catalyst, temperature,hydrogen etc), the carboxyl-group can also be decomposed into CO/CO₂(decarboxylation) and which on their turn can be even furtherhydrogenated into methane. These hydrodeoxygenation reactions consume alot of hydrogen.

As way of example is given the equation for triolein hydrodeoxygenation:

[C₁₈H₃₃O]₃C₃H₅O₃+15H₂→3C₁₈H₃₈+C₃H₈+6H₂O

Hydrodeoxygenation of fatty acids:

R—CH₂—CH₂—COOH+3H₂→R—CH₂—CH₂—CH₃+2H₂O

Further hydrogenation of the intermediate CO/CO₂ can occur depending onthe amount of available hydrogen, the catalyst and the operatingconditions:

CO+3H₂→CH₄+H₂O

CO₂+4H₂→CH₄+2H₂O

The second option consists in decarboxylation or decarbonylation offatty acids. These fatty acids can be obtained from fats & oils byphysical refining (including steam/vacuum distillation), by (steam)splitting of triglycerides or by splitting of soaps (acidulation) usingacids. Decarboxylation of carboxylic acids has been reported in 1982 (W.F. Maier, Chemische Berichte, 115, pages 808-812, 1982) over Pd/SiO₂ andNi/Al₂O₃ catalysts in the gas phase. A highly selective decarboxylationhas been reported in 2005 (I. Kubickova, Catalysis Today, 106, pages197-200, 2005 and M. Snare, Industrial Engineering, Chemistry Research,45, p. 5708-5715, 2006) using transition metal catalysts. Palladiumbased catalysts exhibit the highest selectivity towards decarboxylation.Carboxylic acids can also be decarboxylated under catalytic conditionsusing basic catalyst, like MgO, ZnO and mixed basic oxides (A. Zhang*,Q. Ma, K. Wang, X. Liu, P. Shuler, Y. Tang, “Naphthenic acid removalfrom crude oil through catalytic decarboxylation on magnesium oxide”,Applied Catalysis A: General 303, p. 103, 2006; A. More, John R. Schlup,and Keith L. Hohn “Preliminary Investigations of the CatalyticDeoxygenation of Fatty Acids”, AIChe, The 2006 annual meeting, SanFrancisco and B. Kitiyanan, C. Ung-jinda, V. Meeyoo, “Catalyticdeoxygenation of oleic acid over ceria-zirconia catalysts”, AIChe The2008 annual meeting).

The following reactions can occur:

Decarboxylation:

R—CH₂—CH₂—COOH→R—CH₂—CH₃+CO₂

Decarbonylation:

R—CH₂—CH₂—COOH→R—CH═CH₂+CO+H₂O

Decarboxylation is preferentially done in presence of solid catalyst inbatch type tank reactors, continuous fixed bed type reactors, continuousstirred tank reactors or slurry type reactors. The catalyst can beselected among Ni, Mo, Co or mixtures like NiW, NiMo, CoMo, NiCoW,NiCoMo, NiMoW and CoMoW oxides or sulphides as catalytic phase,preferably supported on high surface area carbon, alumina, silica,titania or zirconia or group 10 (Ni, Pt and Pd) and group 11 (Cu and Ag)metals or alloy mixtures supported on high surface area carbon,magnesia, zinc-oxide, spinels (Mg₂Al₂O₄, ZnAl₂O₄), perovskites (BaTiO₃,ZnTiO₃), calciumsilicates (like xonotlite), alumina, silica orsilica-alumina's or mixtures of the latter. It is preferred that thesupport for the catalytic active phase exhibit low acidity, preferableneutral or basic in order to avoid hydro-isomerisation reactions thatwould result in branched paraffin's and cracking. Decarboxylation canalso be carried out on basic oxides, like alkaline oxides, alkalineearth oxides, lanthanide oxides, zinc-oxide, spinels (Mg₂Al₂O₄,ZnAl₂O₄), perovskites (BaTiO₃, ZnTiO₃), calciumsilicates (likexonotlite), either as bulk material or dispersed on neutral or basiccarriers, on basic zeolites (like alkali or alkaline earth lowsilica/alumina zeolites obtained by exchange or impregnation).

Although, the decarboxylation reaction does not require hydrogen, it ispreferred that the decarboxylation is done in presence of hydrogen thatwill stabilise the catalytic activity by removing strongly adsorbedunsaturated species (for instance when decarbonylation is the prevalentreaction pathway) from the catalyst surface by hydrogen-additionreactions. The presence of hydrogen can also hydrogenate the doublebonds present in the acyl-moiety of the fatty acid in order to obtainparaffinic reaction products from the decarboxylation process. Thedecarboxylation of the fatty acids can be carried out at 100 to 550° C.in absence or presence of hydrogen at pressures ranging from 0.01 up to10 MPa. The hydrogen to feedstock ratio is from 0 to 2000 Nl/l.

Other reactions that can occur under the decarboxylation conditions are:

R—CH═CH₂+H₂→R—CH₂—CH₃

Hydrodeoxygenation of fatty acids:

R—CH₂—CH₂—COOH+3H₂→R—CH₂—CH₂—CH₃+2H₂O

Further hydrogenation of the intermediate CO/CO₂ can occur depending onthe amount of available hydrogen, the catalyst and the operatingconditions:

CO+3H₂→CH₄+H₂O

CO₂+4H₂→CH₄+2H₂O

A third option to obtain bio-naphtha from fats & oils is through thethermal decarboxylation of soaps of fatty acids. The soaps can beobtained from the chemical refining of fats & oils by neutralisation,producing refined triglycerides and soaps, by neutralisation of fattyacids obtained after (steam) splitting of fats & oils or by directsaponification of fats & oils using basic oxides or basic hydroxides,producing a soap and glycerol.

Decarboxylation has been carried out by decomposition of fatty acids inhot compressed water with the aid of alkali-hydroxides, resulting in theproduction of alkanes and CO₂ (M. Watanabe, Energy Conversion andManagement, 47, p. 3344, 2006). Calcium-soaps of Tung oil have beenreported to decompose by distillation as early as 1947 (C. C, Chang, S.W, Wan, “China's Motor Fuels from Tung Oil”, Ind. Eng. Chem., 39 (12),p. 1543, 1947; Hsu, H. L., Osburn, J. O., Grove, C. S., “Pyrolysis ofthe calcium salts of fatty acids”, Ind. Eng. Chem. 42 (10), p. 2141,1950; Craveiro, A. A.; Matos, F. J. A.; Alencar, J. W.; Silveira E. R.Energia: Fontes Alternativas 3, p. 44, 1981; A. Demirbas, “Diesel fuelfrom vegetable oil via transesterification and soap pyrolysis”, EnergySources 24 9, p. 835, 2002).

The preferred soaps are those made of alkaline, alkaline earth,lanthanide, zinc or aluminium cations. The thermal decarboxylation ofsoap can be carried out by heating until the molten soap starts todecompose into the corresponding paraffin's or olefins and thecorresponding metal-carbonate or metal-oxide/hydroxide and CO₂. Withoutwilling to be bound to any theory, it is believed that the followingoverall reactions occur:

[R—CH₂—CH₂—COO⁻]_(x)M^(x+) +xH₂O→xR—CH₂—CH₃+M[HCO₃]_(x)

M[HCO₃]_(x)←→M[OH]_(x)+CO₂

It is preferred that the thermal decomposition of the soaps is carriedout in the presence of liquid, supercritical or vaporous water.

Steamcracking

Steamcrackers are complex industrial facilities that can be divided intothree main zones, each of which has several types of equipment with veryspecific functions: (i) the hot zone including: pyrolysis or crackingfurnaces, quench exchanger and quench ring, the columns of the hotseparation train (ii) the compression zone including: a cracked gascompressor, purification and separation columns, dryers and (iii) thecold zone including: the cold box, de-methaniser, fractionating columnsof the cold separation train, the C₂ and C₃ converters, the gasolinehydrostabilization reactor Hydrocarbon cracking is carried out intubular reactors in direct-fired heaters (furnaces). Various tube sizesand configurations can be used, such as coiled tube, U-tube, or straighttube layouts. Tube diameters range from 1 to 4 inches. Each furnaceconsists of a convection zone in which the waste heat is recovered and aradiant zone in which pyrolysis takes place. The feedstock-steam mixtureis preheated in the convection zone to about 530-650° C. or thefeedstock is preheated in the convection section and subsequently mixedwith dilution steam before it flows over to the radiant zone, wherepyrolysis takes place at temperatures varying from 750 to 950° C. andresidence times from 0.05 to 0.5 second, depending on the feedstock typeand the cracking severity desired. In an advantageous embodiment theresidence time is from 0.05 to 0.15 second. The steam/feedstock (thesteam/[hydrocarbon feedstock]) weight ratio is between 0.2 and 1.0kg/kg, preferentially between 0.3 and 0.5 kg/kg. In an advantageousembodiment the steam/feedstock weight ratio is between 0.2 and 0.45 andpreferably between 0.3 and 0.4. For steamcracking furnaces, the severitycan be modulated by: temperature, residence time, total pressure andpartial pressure of hydrocarbons. In general the ethylene yieldincreases with the temperature while the yield of propylene decreases.At high temperatures, propylene is cracked and hence contributes to moreethylene yield. The increase in severity thus obtained leads to amoderate decrease in selectivity and a substantial decrease of the ratioC₃═/C₂═. So high severity operation favors ethylene, while low severityoperation favors propylene production. The residence time of the feed inthe coil and the temperature are to be considered together. Rate of cokeformation will determine maximum acceptable severity. A lower operatingpressure results in easier light olefins formation and reduced cokeformation. The lowest pressure possible is accomplished by (i)maintaining the output pressure of the coils as close as possible toatmospheric pressure at the suction of the cracked gas compressor (ii)reducing the pressure of the hydrocarbons by dilution with steam (whichhas a substantial influence on slowing down coke formation). Thesteam/feed ratio must be maintained at a level sufficient to limit cokeformation.

Effluent from the pyrolysis furnaces contains unreacted feedstock,desired olefins (mainly ethylene and propylene), hydrogen, methane, amixture of C₄'s (primarily isobutylene and butadiene), pyrolysisgasoline (aromatics in the C₆ to C₈ range), ethane, propane, di-olefins(acetylene, methyl acetylene, propadiene), and heavier hydrocarbons thatboil in the temperature range of fuel oil. This cracked gas is rapidlyquenched to 338-510° C. to stop the pyrolysis reactions, minimizeconsecutive reactions and to recover the sensible heat in the gas bygenerating high-pressure steam in parallel transfer-line heat exchangers(TLE's). In gaseous feedstock based plants, the TLE-quenched gas streamflows forward to a direct water quench tower, where the gas is cooledfurther with recirculating cold water. In liquid feedstock based plants,a prefractionator precedes the water quench tower to condense andseparate the fuel oil fraction from the cracked gas. In both types ofplants, the major portions of the dilution steam and heavy gasoline inthe cracked gas are condensed in the water quench tower at 35-40° C. Thewater-quench gas is subsequently compressed to about 25-35 Bars in 4 or5 stages. Between compression stages, the condensed water and lightgasoline are removed, and the cracked gas is washed with a causticsolution or with a regenerative amine solution, followed by a causticsolution, to remove acid gases (CO₂, H₂S and SO₂). The compressedcracked gas is dried with a desiccant and cooled with propylene andethylene refrigerants to cryogenic temperatures for the subsequentproduct fractionation: Front-end demethanization, Front-enddepropanization or Front-end deethanization.

In a front-end demethanization configuration, tail gases (CO, H₂, andCH₄) are separated from the C₂+ components first by de-methanizationcolumn at about 30 bars. The bottom product flows to thede-ethanization, of which the overhead product is treated in theacetylene hydrogenation unit and further fractionated in the C₂splitting column. The bottom product of the de-ethanization goes to thede-propanization, of which the overhead product is treated in the methylacetylene/propadiene hydrogenation unit and further fractionated in theC₃ splitting column. The bottom product of the de-propaniser goes to thede-butanization where the C₄'s are separated from the pyrolysis gasolinefraction. In this separation sequence, the H₂ required for hydrogenationis externally added to C₂ and C₃ streams. The required H₂ is typicallyrecovered from the tail gas by methanation of the residual CO andeventually further concentrated in a pressure swing adsorption unit.

Front-end de-propanization configuration is used typically insteamcrackers based on gaseous feedstock. In this configuration, afterremoving the acid gases at the end of the third compression stage, theC₃ and lighter components are separated from the C₄₊ byde-propanization. The de-propanizer C₃— overhead is compressed by afourth stage to about 30-35 bars. The acetylenes and/or dienes in theC₃— cut are catalytically hydrogenated with H₂ still present in thestream. Following hydrogenation, the light gas stream is de-methanized,de-ethanized and C₂ split. The bottom product of the de-ethanization caneventually be C₃ split. In an alternative configuration, the C₃—overhead is first de-ethanised and the C₂— treated as described abovewhile the C₃'s are treated in the C₃ acetylene/diene hydrogenation unitand C₃ split. The C₄+ de-propanizer bottom is de-butanized to separateC_(4')s from pyrolysis gasoline. There are two versions of the front-endde-ethanization separation sequence. The product separation sequence isidentical to the front-end de-methanization and front-enddepropanization separation sequence to the third compression stage. Thegas is de-ethanized first at about 27 bars to separate C₂— componentsfrom C₃+ components. The overhead C₂— stream flows to a catalytichydrogenation unit, where acetylene in the stream is selectivelyhydrogenated. The hydrogenated stream is chilled to cryogenictemperatures and de-methanized at low pressure of about 9-10 bars tostrip off tail gases. The C₂ bottom stream is split to produce anoverhead ethylene product and an ethane bottom stream for recycle. Inparallel, the C₃+bottom stream from the front-end de-ethanizer undergoesfurther product separation in a de-propaniser, of which the overheadproduct is treated in the methyl acetylene/propadiene hydrogenation unitand further fractionated in the C₃ splitting column. The bottom productof the de-propaniser goes to the de-butanization where the C₄'s areseparated from the pyrolysis gasoline fraction. In the more recentversion of the front-end de-ethanization separation configuration, thecracked gas is caustic washed after three compression stages,pre-chilled and is then de-ethanized at about 16-18 bars top pressure.The net overhead stream (C₂—) is compressed further in the next stage toabout 35-37 bars before it passes to a catalytic converter tohydrogenate acetylene, with hydrogen still contained in the stream.Following hydrogenation, the stream is chilled and de-methanized tostrip off the tail gases from the C₂ bottom stream. The C_(2')s aresplit in a low pressure column operating at 9-10 bars pressure, insteadof 19-24 bars customarily employed in high pressure C₂ splitters thatuse a propylene refrigerant to condense reflux for the column. For thelow-pressure C₂ splitter separation scheme, the overhead cooling andcompression system is integrated into a heat-pump, open-cycle ethylenerefrigeration circuit. The ethylene product becomes a purged stream ofthe ethylene refrigeration recirculation system.

The ethane bottom product of the C₂ splitter is recycled back to steamcracking. Propane may also be re-cracked, depending on its market value.Recycle steam cracking is accomplished in two or more dedicatedpyrolysis furnaces to assure that the plant continues operating whileone of the recycle furnaces is being decoked.

Many other variations exist of the above-described configurations, inparticular in the way the undesired acetylene/dienes are removed fromthe ethylene and propylene cuts.

Various embodiments are represented in FIGS. 2 to 4.

In a first embodiment (FIG. 2), Fats & Oils are physically refined byvacuum distillation or steam distillation (10) to recover the mixedfatty acids (12) as overhead product and the triglycerides (11) asbottom product. Either the fats & oils, eventually still containing freefatty acids (21) or the physically refined triglycerides (20) acids canbe sent to a hydrodeoxygenation section where they are converted intobio-naphtha (31) and bio-propane (30). This bio-naphtha (41) andbio-propane (43) are sent to the to steamcracking (50) or blended withfossil LPG, naphtha or gasoil (40) and hence the blend is streamcracked(50). The products of the steamcracking are cooled, compressed,fractionated and purified (51). This results in light olefins (ethylene,propylene and butenes), dienes (butadiene, isoprene, (di)cyclopentadieneand piperylenes), aromatics (benzene, toluene and mixed xylenes) andgasoline as main components.

In a second embodiment (FIG. 3), Fats & Oils are physically refined byvacuum distillation or steam distillation (10) to recover the mixedfatty acids (12) as overhead product and the triglycerides (11) asbottom product. Optionally fats & Oils can be hydrolysed (21) to producemixed fatty acids (22) and glycerol (23). The quality of the mixed fattyacids can be further improved by hydrogenation of double bonds in theacyl-moiety or before hydrolysis, the fats & oils can be hydrogenated toremove the remaining double bonds and subsequently sent (21) to thehydrolysis step. The mixed fatty acids can be sent (30) to ahydrodeoxygenation section where they are converted into bio-naphtha(36) or alternatively they can be sent to the decarboxylation section(31) where they are converted into bio-naphtha (35). This bio-naphtha(41) is sent to the to steamcracking (50) or blended with fossil LPG,naphtha or gasoil (40) and hence the blend is streamcracked (50). Theproducts of the steamcracking are cooled, compressed, fractionated andpurified (51). This results in light olefins (ethylene, propylene andbutenes), dienes (butadiene, isoprene, (di)cyclopentadiene andpiperylenes), aromatics (benzene, toluene and mixed xylenes) andgasoline as main components.

In a third embodiment (FIG. 4), fats & Oils are saponificated (21) torecover the soap (22) and glycerol (23). Optionally fats & Oils canhydrolysed (21) to produce mixed fatty acids (22) and glycerol (23).Alternatively, soap (25) can be obtained during a chemical refining stepof raw fats & oils (24) by the neutralisation step. Still another sourceof soap (30) is via neutralisation (29) of fatty acids, obtained by(steam) splitting (26) of fats & oils, producing fatty acids (28) andglycerol (27). The quality of the soaps can be further improved byhydrogenation of double bonds in the acyl-moiety or beforesaponification or hydrolysis, the fats & oils can be hydrogenated toremove the remaining double bonds and subsequently sent to thesaponification (21) or hydrolysis (26) step. The soaps can be sent (31)to the decarboxylation section where they are converted into bio-naphtha(35) and metal-carbonates or CO₂ (36). This bio-naphtha (41) is sent tothe to steamcracking (50) or blended with fossil LPG, naphtha or gasoil(40) and hence the blend is streamcracked (50). The products of thesteamcracking are cooled, compressed, fractionated and purified (51).This results in light olefins (ethylene, propylene and butenes), dienes(butadiene, isoprene, (di)cyclopentadiene and piperylenes), aromatics(benzene, toluene and mixed xylenes) and gasoline as main components.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Hydrodeoxygenation of a triglyceride feed has been evaluated under thefollowing conditions:

In an isothermal reactor, 10 ml of a hydrotreating catalyst composed ofMolybdenum and Nickel supported on alumina (KF848 obtained fromAlbemarle) was loaded, the catalyst dried and pre-sulfurised understandard conditions with straightrun gasoil doped with DMDS.

The hydrodeoxygenation of rapeseed is done at:

LHSV=1 h⁻¹

Inlet Temperature=320° C.

Outlet pressure=60 bars

H2/oil ratio=630 Nl/l

Feedstock=rapeseed doped with 1 wt % DMDS

Table 4 shows a typical composition of the rapeseed oil.

The gas and liquid effluent are separated by means of a separator(gas/liquid) at atmospheric pressure. Gases are sent to a μ-GC analyserand liquids are sent to a sampler. The mass balance is around 99% andall product weights are calculated for 100 g of treated feed.

TABLE 4 Typical composition of rapeseed oil Components wt %tetradecanoate 0.1 hexadecenoate 0.2 hexadecanoate 4.8 heptadecanoate0.1 octadecadienoate 20.6 octadecenoate 61.3 octadécatrienoate 8.6octadecanoate 1.8 eisosenoate 1.2 eicosanoate 0.7 docosenoate 0.3docosanoate 0.3 100

The total liquid effluent is biphasic and need a separation step. Theorganic phase was analyzed via GC-MS. A complete analysis is reported intable 5.

The liquid effluent is composed of 94.4 wt % of n-paraffins but it iscomposed of 99.94 wt % of interesting components, which could be sent tothe naphthacracker.

TABLE 5 Material balance and complete GC analysis of hydro carbon phaseFeed Products 5.96 gr hydrogen 6.48 gr CO2 100 gr rapeseed 0.55 gr CO3.52 H2 5.98 gr propane 0.18 gr methane 2.77 gr water phase 85 grhydrocarbon phase Hydrocarbon phase composition Wt % C3 0.005n-paraffin's with C₅ to C₁₄ 0.268 other paraffin's with C₅ to C₁₄ 0.238other C15 0.061 n-C15 2.353 other C16 0.100 n-C16 2.754 other C17 1.633n-C17 41.077 other C18 2.108 n-C18 44.344 dodecyl-cyclohexane 0.168tridecyl-cyclopentane 0.110 n-paraffin's with C₁₉ to C₃₅ 3.599 otherparaffin's with C₁₉ to C₃₅ 1.1 >n-C35 0.013 2-butanone 0.034 Otheroxygenates 0.025 Total 100.00

94.4 wt % of the hydrocarbon phase are comprised of n-paraffin's that ishigh quality bio-naphtha feedstock for a steamcracker. About 0.059 wt %of remaining oxygenates are found in the hydrocarbon phase. Thatcorresponds to 112 wppm O-atoms. Considering the 0 content in thetriglyceride feed, that represents 10.86 wt % (or 108600 wppm O-atoms),resulting in a hydrodeoxygenation conversion of 99.89%.

Example 2

n-Paraffin's and conventional naphtha have been steamcracked underdifferent severity conditions. Table 6 gives the results. It is evidentfrom the results that such-obtained bio-naphtha are better feedstock forsteamcracking compared to fossil naphtha.

Significant higher ethylene and propylene yields can be obtained whereasthe methane make and the pyrolysis gasoline make is reduced with atleast about 20%. The ultimate yield of HVC (High valueChemicals=H2+ethylene+propylene+butadiene+benzene) is above 70 wt %.Ethylene/Methane weight ratio is always above 3.

TABLE 6 Naphtha n-Decane n-C15 n-C20 Naphtha n-Decane n-C15 n-C20 P/E0.59 0.44 0.50 0.49 0.50 0.39 0.44 0.44 COT 812 812 812 812 832 832 832832 S/HC 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 Summary wt % (dry) wt %(dry) wt % (dry) wt % (dry) wt % (dry) wt % (dry) wt % (dry) wt % (dry)Hydrogen 0.87 0.66 0.59 0.57 0.96 0.76 0.69 0.67 Methane 14.79 11.6710.65 10.00 16.25 12.80 11.80 11.15 Acetylene 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.360.37 0.37 0.37 Ethylene 25.39 38.87 36.24 35.82 26.91 39.67 36.93 36.47Ethane 4.09 6.58 6.07 5.84 3.89 6.10 5.62 5.42 Methyl-Acetylene 0.290.21 0.22 0.22 0.36 0.26 0.27 0.27 Propadiene 0.21 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.250.18 0.19 0.19 Propylene 15.10 17.29 18.08 17.63 13.48 15.59 16.28 15.91Propane 0.51 0.73 0.69 0.66 0.44 0.62 0.59 0.57 Vinyl-Acetylene 0.040.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 Butadiene 4.61 5.96 6.88 7.30 4.415.79 6.49 6.79 Butene (sum) 4.86 2.99 3.34 3.43 3.67 2.12 2.34 2.38Butane (sum) 0.08 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.06 0.11 0.09 0.09 Total C5-C9's 23.6912.48 14.65 15.75 22.30 13.14 15.33 16.42 Total C10+ 5.17 1.93 1.96 2.156.53 2.38 2.86 3.18 Carbon Oxide 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07Carbon Dioxide 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ultimate Ethylene28.67 44.14 41.09 40.49 30.02 44.55 41.43 40.80 C2= + C3= 43.77 61.4359.17 58.12 43.51 60.14 57.71 56.70 BENZENE 8.27 5.35 6.46 7.05 9.426.55 7.77 8.39 HVG's 54.25 68.14 68.24 63.37 55.18 68.35 68.16 68.23Ultimate HVC's 57.52 73.40 73.10 73.04 58.29 73.23 72.66 72.56 P/E isthe propylene/ethylene ratio COT is the coil outlet temperature S/HC isthe ratio steam/hydrocarbon Naphtha composition wt % Normal paraffins31.26 Iso paraffins 33.48 Naphtenics 28.1 Aromatics 7.16 Olefins 0Others 0

P/E is the propylene/ethylene ratio

COT is the coil outlet temperature

S/HC is the ratio steam/hydrocarbon

What is claimed: 1-11. (canceled)
 12. A process of using a bio-naphthaas a direct feedstock of a steamcracker comprising: steamcracking ahydrocarbon feedstock comprising bio-naphtha, wherein the bio-naptha isobtained from a complex mixture of natural occurring fats & oils,wherein said complex mixture is subjected to a refining treatment forremoving a major part of non-triglyceride and non-fatty acid components,thereby obtaining refined fats & oils; and wherein: said refined fats &oils are transformed into linear or substantially linear paraffins asthe bio-naphtha by hydrodeoxygenation; or from said refined fats & oilsare obtained fatty acids that are transformed into linear orsubstantially linear paraffins as the bio-naphtha by hydrodeoxygenationor decarboxylation of free fatty acids; or from said refined fats & oilsare obtained fatty acid soaps that are transformed into linear orsubstantially linear paraffins as the bio-naphtha by decarboxylation ofthe fatty acid soaps; wherein the hydrocarbon feedstock optionallycomprises bio-propane, or wherein the bio-naphtha is optionally blendedwith at least a conventional feedstock selected among LPG, naphtha andgasoil; obtaining cracked products including bio-ethylene,bio-propylene, bio-butadiene, bio-isoprene, bio-cyclopentadiene andbio-piperylenes, bio-benzene, bio-toluene, bio-xylene and bio-gasoline;wherein in the steamcracking process the hydrocarbon feedstock is mixedwith steam in a ratio of 0.3 to 0.45 kg steam per kg hydrocarbonfeedstock.
 13. The process of claim 12, wherein the hydrocarbonfeedstock is mixed with steam in a ratio of 0.3 to 0.4 kg steam per kghydrocarbon feedstock.
 14. The process of claim 12, wherein thehydrocarbon feedstock is heated up to a temperature of 750-950° C. andsteamcracked for a residence time of 0.05 to 0.5 seconds.
 15. Theprocess of claim 12, wherein the hydrocarbon feedstock is heated up to atemperature of 750-950° C. and steamcracked for a residence time of 0.05to 0.15 seconds.
 16. The process of claim 12, wherein the obtainedcracked products exhibit an ethylene to methane weight ratio of at least3.
 17. The process of claim 12, wherein the bio-propane is also obtainedfrom the complex mixture of natural occurring fats & oils.
 18. Theprocess of claim 12, wherein the complex mixture of natural occurringfats & oils is selected among vegetable oils and animal fats.
 19. Theprocess of claim 12, wherein the fatty acids are obtained by physicalrefining, including a steam distillation or vacuum distillation of fats& oils; or the fatty acids are obtained by hydrolysis of triglyceridesof the fats & oils; or the fatty acids are obtained by acidulation ofsoaps.
 20. The process of claim 12, wherein the fatty acid soaps areobtained by: saponification of fats & oils; or by the chemical refining,including neutralisation of free fatty acids, present in the fats &oils; or neutralisation of fatty acids, obtained from hydrolysis of thefats & oils.
 21. The process of claim 12, wherein the refined fats &oils are transformed into linear or substantially linear paraffins asthe bio-naphtha together with the bio-propane by hydrodeoxygenation inthe presence of hydrogen and at least one catalyst selected among Ni,Mo, Co, NiW, NiMo, CoMo, NiCoW, NiCoMo, NiMoW and CoMoW oxides orsulphides, optionally supported on high surface area carbon, alumina,silica, titania or zirconia.
 22. The process of claim 21, wherein thehydrodeoxygenation is carried out at a temperature from 200 to 500° C.,under a pressure from 1 MPa to 10 MPa and with a hydrogen to feed ratiofrom 100 to 2000 Nl/l.
 23. The process of claim 12, wherein the refinedfats & oils are transformed into linear or substantially linearparaffins as the bio-naphtha by hydrolysis of the fats & oils intoglycerol and fatty acids, removal of the glycerol; or by physicalrefining, including a steam distillation or a vacuum distillation offats & oils; or by acidulation of soaps and hydrodeoxygenation ordecarboxylation of the fatty acids, said hydrodeoxygenation ordecarboxylation being conducted in the presence of hydrogen and at leastone catalyst selected among Ni, Mo, Co, NiW, NiMo, CoMo, NiCoW, NiCoMo,NiMoW and CoMoW oxides or sulphides, optionally supported on highsurface area carbon, alumina, silica, titania or zirconia; or group 10and group 11 metals or alloy mixtures supported on high surface areacarbon, magnesia, zinc-oxide, spinels, perovskites, calciumsilicates,alumina, silica or silica-alumina or mixtures of the latter.
 24. Theprocess of claim 12, wherein the refined fats & oils are transformedinto linear or substantially linear paraffins as the bio-naphtha byhydrolysis of the fats & oils into glycerol and fatty acids, removal ofthe glycerol; or by physical refining, including a steam distillation ora vacuum distillation of fats & oils; or by acidulation of soaps anddecarboxylation of the fatty acids that is carried out on basic oxides,alkaline earth oxides, lanthanide oxides, zinc-oxide, spinels,perovskites, calciumsilicates, either as bulk material or dispersed onneutral or basic carriers, on basic zeolites.
 25. The process of claim12, wherein the hydrodeoxygenation is carried out at a temperature from200 to 500° C., under a pressure from 1 MPa to 10 MPa and with ahydrogen to feedstock ratio from 100 to 2000 Nl/l; or wherein thedecarboxylation is carried out at a temperature from 100 to 550° C.,under a pressure from 0.1 MPa to 10 MPa and with a hydrogen to feedstockratio from 0 to 2000 Nl/l.
 26. The process of claim 12, wherein thedecarboxylation of the fatty acid soaps is carried out at from 100 to550° C. under pressure from 0.1 Mpa to 10 Mpa and in presence of water.27. The process of claim 12, wherein the decarboxylation of the fattyacid soaps is carried out with a water to feedstock ratio of at least 1mole water per mole of fatty acid soap.
 28. The process of claim 12,wherein the complex mixture of natural occurring fats & oils is selectedamong inedible oils, highly saturated oils, waste food oils, by-productsof the refining of vegetable oils, and mixtures thereof.
 29. The processof claim 12, wherein the non-triglyceride and non-fatty acid componentscomprise free fatty acids.
 30. A process comprising: steamcracking ahydrocarbon feedstock comprising bio-naphtha, wherein the hydrocarbonfeedstock is mixed with steam in a ratio of 0.3 to 0.45 kg steam per kghydrocarbon feedstock during the steamcracking; wherein the bio-naphthais obtained from a complex mixture of natural occurring fats & oils,wherein said complex mixture is subjected to a refining treatment forremoving a major part of non-triglyceride and non-fatty acid components,thereby obtaining refined fats & oils, and wherein the non-triglycerideand non-fatty acid components comprise free fatty acids.